duminică, 23 ianuarie 2011

Taxonomy and evolution

From left to right: Size development, biometrical changes in the cranium, reduction of toes (left forefoot)

Main articles: Evolution of the horse, Equus (genus), and Equidae

The horse adapted to survive in areas of wide-open terrain with sparse vegetation, surviving in an ecosystem where other large grazing animals, especially ruminants, could not.^[99] Horses and other equids are odd-toed ungulates of the order Perissodactyla, a group of mammals that was dominant during the Tertiary period. In the past, this order contained 14 families, but only three—Equidae (the horse and related species), the tapir, and the rhinoceros—have survived to the present day.^[100] The earliest known member of the Equidae family was the Hyracotherium, which lived between 45 and 55 million years ago, during the Eocene period. It had 4 toes on each front foot, and 3 toes on each back foot.^[101] The extra toe on the front feet soon disappeared with the Mesohippus, which lived 32 to 37 million years ago.^[102] Over time, the extra side toes shrank in size until they vanished. All that remains of them in modern horses is a set of small vestigial bones on the leg below the knee,^[103] known informally as splint bones.^[104] Their legs also lengthened as their toes disappeared until they were a hooved animal capable of running at great speed.^[103] By about 5 million years ago, the modern Equus had evolved.^[105] Equid teeth also evolved from browsing on soft, tropical plants to adapt to browsing of drier plant material, then to grazing of tougher plains grasses. Thus proto-horses changed from leaf-eating forest-dwellers to grass-eating inhabitants of semi-arid regions worldwide, including the steppes of Eurasia and the Great Plains of North America.
By about 15,000 years ago, Equus ferus was a widespread holarctic species. Horse bones from this time period, the late Pleistocene, are found in Europe, Eurasia, Beringia, and North America.^[106] Yet between 10,000 and 7,600 years ago, the horse became extinct in North America and rare elsewhere.^[107]^[108]^[109] The reasons for this extinction are not fully known, but one theory notes that extinction in North America paralleled human arrival.^[110] Another theory points to climate change, noting that approximately 12,500 years ago, the grasses characteristic of a steppe ecosystem gave way to shrub tundra, which was covered with unpalatable plants.^[111]

Wild species surviving into modern times

Three tan colored horses with upright manes. Two horses nip and paw at each other, while the third moves towards the camera. They stand in open, rocky grassland, with forests in the distance.

A small herd of Przewalski's Horses

Main article: Wild horse

A truly wild horse is a species or subspecies with no ancestors that were ever domesticated. Therefore, most "wild" horses today are actually feral horses, animals that escaped or were turned loose from domestic herds and the descendants of those animals.^[112] Only one truly wild horse species (Equus ferus) with two subspecies, the Tarpan and the Przewalski's Horse, survived into recorded history.
The only true wild horse alive today is the Przewalski's Horse (Equus ferus przewalskii), named after the Russian explorer Nikolai Przhevalsky. It is a rare Asian animal, also known as the Mongolian Wild Horse; Mongolian people know it as the taki, and the Kyrgyz people call it a kirtag. The species was presumed extinct in the wild between 1969 and 1992, while a small breeding population survived in zoos around the world. In 1992, it was reestablished in the wild due to the conservation efforts of numerous zoos.^[113] Today, a small wild breeding population exists in Mongolia.^[114]^[115] There are additional animals still maintained at zoos throughout the world.
The Tarpan or European Wild Horse (Equus ferus ferus) was found in Europe and much of Asia. It survived into the historical era, but became extinct in 1909, when the last captive died in a Russian zoo.^[116] Thus, the genetic line was lost. Attempts have been made to recreate the Tarpan,^[116]^[117]^[118] which resulted in horses with outward physical similarities, but nonetheless descended from domesticated ancestors and not true wild horses.
Periodically, populations of horses in isolated areas are speculated to be relic populations of wild horses, but generally have been proven to be feral or domestic. For example, the Riwoche horse of Tibet was proposed as such,^[115] but testing did not reveal genetic differences with domesticated horses,^[119] Similarly, the Sorraia of Spain was proposed as a direct descendant of the Tarpan based on shared characteristics,^[120]^[121] but genetic studies have shown that the Sorraia is more closely related to other horse breeds and that the outward similarity is an unreliable measure of relatedness.

Main articles: Draft horse, Warmblood, and Oriental horse

Horses are mammals, and as such are "warm-blooded" creatures, as opposed to cold-blooded reptiles. However, these words have developed a separate meaning in the context of equine terminology, used to describe temperament, not body temperature. For example, the "hot-bloods", such as many race horses, exhibit more sensitivity and energy,^[78] while the "cold-bloods", such as most draft breeds, are quieter and calmer.^[79] Sometimes "hot-bloods" are classified as "light horses" or "riding horses",^[80] with the "cold-bloods" classified as "draft horses" or "work horses".^[81]

a sepia-toned engraving from an old book, showing 11 horses of different breeds and sizes in nine different illustrations

Illustration of hotbloods, warmbloods and coldblood breeds

"Hot blooded" breeds include "oriental horses" such as the Akhal-Teke, Barb, Arabian horse and now-extinct Turkoman horse, as well as the Thoroughbred, a breed developed in England from the older oriental breeds.^[78] Hot bloods tend to be spirited, bold, and learn quickly. They are bred for agility and speed.^[82] They tend to be physically refined—thin-skinned, slim, and long-legged.^[83] The original oriental breeds were brought to Europe from the Middle East and North Africa when European breeders wished to infuse these traits into racing and light cavalry horses.^[84]^[85]
Muscular, heavy draft horses are known as "cold bloods", as they are bred not only for strength, but also to have the calm, patient temperament needed to pull a plow or a heavy carriage full of people.^[79] They are sometimes nicknamed "gentle giants".^[86] Well-known draft breeds include the Belgian and the Clydesdale.^[86] Some, like the Percheron are lighter and livelier, developed to pull carriages or to plow large fields in drier climates.^[87] Others, such as the Shire, are slower and more powerful, bred to plow fields with heavy, clay-based soils.^[88] The cold-blooded group also includes some pony breeds.^[89]
"Warmblood" breeds, such as the Trakehner or Hanoverian, developed when European carriage and war horses were crossed with Arabians or Thoroughbreds, producing a riding horse with more refinement than a draft horse, but greater size and milder temperament than a lighter breed.^[90] Certain pony breeds with warmblood characteristics have been developed for smaller riders.^[91] Warmbloods are considered a "light horse" or "riding horse".^[80]
Today, the term "Warmblood" refers to a specific subset of sport horse breeds that are used for competition in dressage and show jumping.^[92] Strictly speaking, the term "warm blood" refers to any cross between cold-blooded and hot-blooded breeds.^[93] Examples include breeds such as the Irish Draught or the Cleveland Bay. The term was once used to refer to breeds of light riding horse other than Thoroughbreds or Arabians, such as the Morgan horse.^[82]

Senses

Close up of a horse eye, with is dark brown with lashes on the top eyelid

A horse's eye

Movement

The gallop

Main articles: Horse gait, Trot (horse gait), Canter, and Ambling

All horses move naturally with four basic gaits: the four-beat walk, which averages 6.4 kilometres per hour (4.0 mph); the two-beat trot or jog at 13 to 19 kilometres per hour (8.1 to 12 mph) (faster for harness racing horses); the canter or lope, a three-beat gait that is 19 to 24 kilometres per hour (12 to 15 mph); and the gallop.^[65] The gallop averages 40 to 48 kilometres per hour (25 to 30 mph),^[66] but the world record for a horse galloping over a short, sprint distance is 88 kilometres per hour (55 mph).^[67] Besides these basic gaits, some horses perform a two-beat pace, instead of the trot.^[68] There also are several four-beat "ambling" gaits that are approximately the speed of a trot or pace, though smoother to ride. These include the lateral rack, running walk, and tölt as well as the diagonal fox trot.^[69] Ambling gaits are often genetic in some breeds, known collectively as gaited horses.^[70] Often, gaited horses replace the trot with one of the ambling gaits.^[71]

Behavior

Main articles: Horse behavior and Stable vices

Horses are prey animals with a strong fight-or-flight instinct. Their first response to threat is to startle and usually flee, although they will stand their ground and defend themselves when flight is not possible, or if their young are threatened. They also tend to be curious; when startled, they will often hesitate an instant to ascertain the cause of their fright, and may not always flee from something that they perceive as non-threatening. Most light horse riding breeds were developed for speed, agility, alertness and endurance; natural qualities that extend from their wild ancestors. However, through selective breeding, some breeds of horses are quite docile, particularly certain draft horses.^[72] Horses are herd animals, with a clear hierarchy of rank, led by a dominant animal (usually a mare). They are also social creatures who are able to form companionship attachments to their own species and to other animals, including humans. They communicate in various ways, including vocalizations such as nickering or whinnying, mutual grooming, and body language. Many horses will become difficult to manage if they are isolated, but with training, horses can learn to accept a human as a companion, and thus be comfortable away from other horses.^[73] However, when confined with insufficient companionship, exercise, or stimulation, individuals may develop stable vices, an assortment of bad habits, mostly psychological in origin, that include wood chewing, wall kicking, "weaving" (rocking back and forth), and other problems.^[74]

Intelligence and learning

In the past, horses were considered unintelligent, with no abstract thinking ability, unable to generalize, and driven primarily by a herd mentality. However, modern studies show that they perform a number of cognitive tasks on a daily basis, with mental challenges that include food procurement and social system identification. They also have good spatial discrimination abilities.^[75] Studies have assessed equine intelligence in the realms of problem solving, learning speed, and knowledge retention. Results show that horses excel at simple learning, but also are able to solve advanced cognitive challenges that involve categorization and concept learning. They learn from habituation, desensitization, Pavlovian conditioning, and operant conditioning. They respond to and learn from both positive and negative reinforcement.^[75] Recent studies even suggest horses are able to count if the quantity involved is less than four.^[76]
Domesticated horses tend to face greater mental challenges than wild horses, because they live in artificial environments that stifle instinctual behaviour while learning tasks that are not natural.^[75] Horses are creatures of habit that respond and adapt well to regimentation, and respond best when the same routines and techniques are used consistently. Some trainers believe that "intelligent" horses are reflections of intelligent trainers who effectively use response conditioning techniques and positive reinforcement to train in the style that fits best with an individual animal's natural inclinations. Others who handle horses regularly note that personality also may play a role separate from intelligence in determining how a given animal responds to various experiences.^[77]

Main article: Skeletal system of the horse

Diagram of a horse skeleton with major parts labeled.

The skeletal system of a modern horse

Horses have a skeleton that averages 205 bones.^[46] A significant difference between the horse skeleton and that of a human, is the lack of a collarbone—the horse's forelimbs are attached to the spinal column by a powerful set of muscles, tendons, and ligaments that attach the shoulder blade to the torso. The horse's legs and hooves are also unique structures. Their leg bones are proportioned differently from those of a human. For example, the body part that is called a horse's "knee" is actually made up of the carpal bones that correspond to the human wrist. Similarly, the hock contains bones equivalent to those in the human ankle and heel. The lower leg bones of a horse correspond to the bones of the human hand or foot, and the fetlock (incorrectly called the "ankle") is actually the proximal sesamoid bones between the cannon bones (a single equivalent to the human metacarpal or metatarsal bones) and the proximal phalanges, located where one finds the "knuckles" of a human. A horse also has no muscles in its legs below the knees and hocks, only skin, hair, bone, tendons, ligaments, cartilage, and the assorted specialized tissues that make up the hoof.^[47]

Hooves

Main articles: Horse hoof, Horseshoe, and Farrier

The critical importance of the feet and legs is summed up by the traditional adage, "no foot, no horse".^[48] The horse hoof begins with the distal phalanges, the equivalent of the human fingertip or tip of the toe, surrounded by cartilage and other specialized, blood-rich soft tissues such as the laminae. The exterior hoof wall and horn of the sole is made of essentially the same material as a human fingernail.^[49] The end result is that a horse, weighing on average 500 kilograms (1,100 lb),^[50] travels on the same bones as would a human on tiptoe.^[51] For the protection of the hoof under certain conditions, some horses have horseshoes placed on their feet by a professional farrier. The hoof continually grows, and needs to be trimmed (and horseshoes reset, if used) every five to eight weeks.^[52]

Teeth

Main article: Horse teeth

Horses are adapted to grazing. In an adult horse, there are 12 incisors, adapted to biting off the grass or other vegetation, at the front of the mouth. There are 24 teeth adapted for chewing, the premolars and molars, at the back of the mouth. Stallions and geldings have four additional teeth just behind the incisors, a type of canine teeth that are called "tushes". Some horses, both male and female, will also develop one to four very small vestigial teeth in front of the molars, known as "wolf" teeth, which are generally removed because they can interfere with the bit. There is an empty interdental space between the incisors and the molars where the bit rests directly on the bars (gums) of the horse's mouth when the horse is bridled.^[53]
The incisors show a distinct wear and growth pattern as the horse ages, as well as change in the angle at which the chewing surfaces meet. The teeth continue to erupt throughout life as they are worn down by grazing, so a very rough estimate of a horse's age can be made by an examination of its teeth, although diet and veterinary care can affect the rate of tooth wear.^[4]

Digestion

Main articles: Equine digestive system and Equine nutrition

Horses are herbivores with a digestive system adapted to a forage diet of grasses and other plant material, consumed steadily throughout the day. Therefore, compared to humans, they have a relatively small stomach but very long intestines to facilitate a steady flow of nutrients. A 450-kilogram (990 lb) horse will eat 7 to 11 kilograms (15 to 24 lb) of food per day and, under normal use, drink 38 litres (8.4 imp gal; 10 US gal) to 45 litres (9.9 imp gal; 12 US gal) of water. Horses are not ruminants, so they have only one stomach, like humans, but unlike humans, they can also digest cellulose from grasses due to the presence of a "hind gut" called the cecum, or "water gut", which food goes through before reaching the large intestine. Unlike humans, horses cannot vomit, so digestion problems can quickly cause colic, a leading cause of death.^[54]

Colors and markings

Two horses in a field. The one on the left is a dark brown with black mane and tail. The one on the right is a light red all over.

Bay (left) and chestnut (sometimes called "sorrel") are two of the most common coat colors, seen in almost all breeds.

Main articles: Equine coat color, Equine coat color genetics, and Horse markings

Horses exhibit a diverse array of coat colors and distinctive markings, described with a specialized vocabulary. Often, a horse is classified first by its coat color, before breed or sex.^[33] Horses of the same color may be distinguished from one another by white markings,^[34] which, along with various spotting patterns, are inherited separately from coat color.^[35]
Many genes that create horse coat colors have been identified, although research continues to further identify factors that result in specific traits. One of the first genetic relationships to be understood was that between recessive "red" (chestnut) and dominant "black", which is controlled by the "red factor" or extension gene. Additional alleles control spotting, graying, suppression or dilution of color, and other effects that create the dozens of possible coat colors found in horses.^[36]
Chestnut, bay, and black are the basic equine coat colors. These colors are modified by at least ten other genes to create all other colors, including dilutions such as palomino and spotting patterns such as pinto.^[36] Horses which are white in coat color are often mislabeled as "white" horses. However, a horse that looks white is usually a middle-aged or older gray. Grays are born a darker shade, get lighter as they age, and usually have black skin underneath their white hair coat (with the exception of pink skin under white markings). The only horses properly called white are born with a white hair coat and have predominantly pink skin, a fairly rare occurrence.^[37] There are no truly "albino" horses having both pink skin and red eyes.^[38]

Reproduction and development

Main article: Horse breeding

Gestation lasts for approximately 335–340 days^[39] and usually results in one foal. Twins are rare.^[40] Horses are a precocial species, and foals are capable of standing and running within a short time following birth.^[41]
Horses, particularly colts, sometimes are physically capable of reproduction at about 18 months, but domesticated horses are rarely allowed to breed before the age of three, especially females.^[39] Horses four years old are considered mature, although the skeleton normally continues to develop until the age of six; maturation also depends on the horse's size, breed, sex, and quality of care. Also, if the horse is larger, its bones are larger; therefore, not only do the bones take longer to actually form bone tissue, but the epiphyseal plates are also larger and take longer to convert from cartilage to bone. These plates convert after the other parts of the bones, and are crucial to development.^[42]
Depending on maturity, breed, and work expected, horses are usually put under saddle and trained to be ridden between the ages of two and four.^[43] Although Thoroughbred race horses are put on the track at as young as two years old in some countries,^[44] horses specifically bred for sports such as dressage are generally not put under saddle until they are three or four years old, because their bones and muscles are not solidly developed.^[45] For endurance riding competition, horses are not deemed mature enough to compete until they are a full 60 calendar months (5 years) old.^[9]

Lifespan and life stages

Depending on breed, management and environment, the domestic horse today has a life expectancy of 25 to 30 years.^[4] It is uncommon, but a few animals live into their 40s and, occasionally, beyond.^[5] The oldest verifiable record was "Old Billy", a 19th-century horse that lived to the age of 62.^[4] In modern times, Sugar Puff, who had been listed in the Guinness Book of World Records as the world's oldest living pony, died in 2007, aged 56.^[6]
Regardless of a horse's actual birth date, for most competition purposes an animal is considered a year older on January 1 of each year in the northern hemisphere^[4]^[7] and August 1 in the southern hemisphere.^[8] The exception is in endurance riding, where the minimum age to compete is based on the animal's calendar age.^[9] A very rough estimate of a horse's age can be made from looking at its teeth.^[4]
The following terminology is used to describe horses of various ages:

Foal: a horse of either sex less than one year old. A nursing foal is sometimes called a suckling and a foal that has been weaned is called a weanling.^[10] Most domesticated foals are weaned at 5 to 7 months of age, although foals can be weaned at 4 months with no adverse effects.^[11]
Yearling: a horse of either sex that is between one and two years old.^[12]
Colt: a male horse under the age of four.^[13] A common terminology error is to call any young horse a "colt", when the term actually only refers to young male horses.^[14]
Filly: a female horse under the age of four.^[10]
Mare: a female horse four years old and older.^[15]
Stallion: a non-castrated male horse four years old and older.^[16] Some people, particularly in the UK, refer to a stallion as a "horse".^[17]
Gelding: a castrated male horse of any age.^[10]

In horse racing, these definitions may differ: For example, in the British Isles, Thoroughbred horse racing defines colts and fillies as less than five years old.^[18] However, for Australian Thoroughbred racing, colts and fillies are less than four years old.^[19]

For other uses, see Horse (disambiguation).

Domestic horse

Conservation status
Domesticated
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Mammalia
Subclass:	Theria
Infraclass:	Eutheria
Order:	Perissodactyla
Family:	Equidae
Genus:	Equus
Species:	E. ferus
Subspecies:	E. f. caballus
Trinomial name
*Equus ferus caballus* Linnaeus, 1758^[1]
Synonyms
48^[2]

The horse (Equus ferus caballus)^[2]^[3] is a hooved (ungulate) mammal, a subspecies of the family Equidae. The horse has evolved over the past 45 to 55 million years from a small multi-toed creature into the large, single-toed animal of today. Humans began to domesticate horses around 4000 BC, and their domestication is believed to have been widespread by 3000 BC. Although most horses today are domesticated, there are still endangered populations of the Przewalski's Horse, the only remaining true wild horse, as well as more common populations of feral horses which live in the wild but are descended from domesticated ancestors. There is an extensive, specialized vocabulary used to describe equine-related concepts, covering everything from anatomy to life stages, size, colors, markings, breeds, locomotion, and behaviour.
Horses' anatomy enables them to make use of speed to escape predators and they have a well-developed sense of balance and a strong fight-or-flight instinct. Related to this need to flee from predators in the wild is an unusual trait: horses are able to sleep both standing up and lying down. Female horses, called mares, carry their young for approximately 11 months, and a young horse, called a foal, can stand and run shortly following birth. Most domesticated horses begin training under saddle or in harness between the ages of two and four. They reach full adult development by age five, and have an average lifespan of between 25 and 30 years.
Horse breeds are loosely divided into three categories based on general temperament: spirited "hot bloods" with speed and endurance; "cold bloods", such as draft horses and some ponies, suitable for slow, heavy work; and "warmbloods", developed from crosses between hot bloods and cold bloods, often focusing on creating breeds for specific riding purposes, particularly in Europe. There are over 300 breeds of horses in the world today, developed for many different uses.
Horses and humans interact in a wide variety of sport competitions and non-competitive recreational pursuits, as well as in working activities such as police work, agriculture, entertainment, and therapy. Horses were historically used in warfare, from which a wide variety of riding and driving techniques developed, using many different styles of equipment and methods of control. Many products are derived from horses, including meat, milk, hide, hair, bone, and pharmaceuticals extracted from the urine of pregnant mares. Humans provide domesticated horses with food, water and shelter, as well as attention from specialists such as veterinarians and farriers.

An Introduction to Horses

Understanding Horses and Other Equids

By Laura Klappenbach, About.com Guide

See More About:

Horse Classification

Horses and their relatives (Family Equidae) are mammals, which means they possess the basic characteristics of all mammals which include:

mammary glands
hair
diaphragm
three middle-ear ossicles
heterodont dentation
sweat, sebaceous, and scent glands
four-chambered heart
large cerebral cortex

Additionally, equids belong to the Order Perissodactyla (odd-toed ungulates) which is a group of mammals characterized by having hooves. In addition to equids, the Order Perissodactyla includes tapirs and rhinoceroses. The taxonomic classification of horses is as follows:

Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Perissodactyla
Family: Equidae

Pony Pucks and Sweet Feed - Week Ending 22-1-2011

Saturday January 22, 2011

I read a lot of horse news over the week. Here's the best and worst from the past week. Pony Pucks to the judge who ruled horse's aren't vehicles and riding one down a street while drunk does not warrant a DUI charge. You might remember last week I blogged about two men who were caught riding, one a on a horse and the other a mule, while drunk. But a small handful of Sweet Feed because they were charged with public drunkenness. and his sense of humor. What do you think?

Pony Pucks to all those found guilty of animal cruelty, of which there were too many to list here. It amazes me the number of stories that appear each week like this.
Sweet Feed for the Friends of the Fort Ord Warhorse for organizing the celebration of World War II warhorse history of Fort Ord. The Monterey County Herald reports there will be presentations, memorabilia, speakers, exhibits and a chance to ride your own horse on the Sgt. Allan MacDonald Cavalry Trail.
Sweet Feed to those campaigning to slow down drivers through the New Forest, UK. Since the campaign began pony deaths have decreased, resulting in fewer fatalities and injuries of the ponies, all who are privately owned, but allowed to roam freely through the New Forest.

She Had a Horse: A Helmet Story

Friday January 21, 2011

Over on AnnaBlakeBlog, Anna, who is the owner of Infinity Farm, where she trains riders and horses, shares a story from a friend who volunteers at a nursing home. We all know who we would expect to encounter at a nursing home, but this experience was a bit different. Often, those who resist wearing a helmet do so because they feel it is their right, and enjoy the freedom of the wind in their hair. I can't deny the appeal. But freedom can have many faces, and Anna tells of just one in her blog Helmets and Freedom.

All about horses

duminică, 23 ianuarie 2011

See also: Horse sleep patterns and Sleep in non-humans

Taxonomy and evolution

Wild species surviving into modern times